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Electrodeionization (EDI) is an electrically driven separations technology that employs ion-exchange membranes and resin particles. Deionization occurs under the influence of an applied electric field, facilitating continuous regeneration of the resins and supplementing ionic conductivity. While EDI is commercially used for ultrapure water production, material innovation is required for improving desalination performance and energy efficiency for treating alternative water supplies. This work reports a new class of ion-exchange resin-wafers (RWs) fabricated with ion-conductive binders that exhibit exceptional ionic conductivities—a 3–5-fold improvement over conventional RWs that contain a non-ionic polyethylene binder.
What's new in y2mp3 2.4.2: FIx - 'Update available' leads to send an idea instead of to downloads page; Read the full changelog. Particles may restrict flow through air jet nozzles used to clean food preparation surfaces or adversely affect the consistency of spray coatings applied on food products. To achieve the recommended ISO 8573.1 Class 2 classification for solid particulate removal, a 1.0.
Incorporation into an EDI stack (RW-EDI) resulted in an increased desalination rate and reduced energy expenditure compared to the conventional RWs. The water-splitting phenomenon was also investigated in the RW in an external experimental setup in this work. Overall, this work demonstrates that ohmic resistances can be substantially curtailed with ionomer binder RWs at dilute salt concentrations. Electrochemical separations, which primarily consist of electrodialysis (ED), electrodeionization (EDI), and membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI/CDI), are a subset of technologies primarily used for deionization and other water treatment processes. These technologies offer distinct advantages for desalination over osmotic based technologies (e.g., reverse osmosis) in certain scenarios such as selective ionic sorption, and deionization of liquid streams with relatively low dissolved ionic species concentrations (e.g., brackish water with less than 5000 mg L −1 ). Figure depicts the polymer binder chemical structures used to fabricate the four new RW materials. Figure shows different configurations and pictures of the ionomer-based RWs.
Two configurations of the ionomer binder RWs feature a single type of ion-exchange resin particles (e.g., CER only or AER only) bound by an oppositely-charged ionomer. It was envisaged that these two configurations maximize the number of bipolar junction points in the RW to improve the rate of water-splitting. This is because the mixed RWs with and without ionomer binder have a smaller probability that fixed cationic groups meet fixed anionic groups separated by a small gap on the nanoscale. Kohl and co-workers, using a simplified electrostatics model, report that the depletion width for bipolar junction regions is less than 2.5 nm. Hence, gaps between the fixed cationic and anionic groups much larger than 2.5 nm would be ineffective for splitting water. However, this simple model does not reflect a true bipolar junction in bipolar membranes as water dissociation catalysts are needed to effectively split water and these particles can be larger than 2.5 nm.
The water-splitting performance of RWs will be discussed in more detail in subsequent sections. The new manufacturing process used to fabricate ionomer binder RWs is depicted in Fig. The process commences with ionomer solution (14 weight% in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) solvent) mixed with the ion-exchange resin particles and NaCl as a porosigen. This mixture is poured into a stainless-steel mold that was first treated with a non-stick, cooking oil coating and positioned on a level surface in an oven.
Then, the NMP solvent was evaporated overnight at 60 °C. The mold was closed with a stainless-steel top, and the enclosed mold with the ionomer binder RW was hot-pressed at 125 °C and 2 metric ton load for 2 h. Then, the ionomer binder RW was removed from the mold and immersed in 250 mL of deionized water to leach the NaCl leaving behind a porous RW. The new RW was rinsed with copious amounts water to remove residual NaCl and NMP solvent.The selection of ionomer chemistries shown in Fig.
And the manufacturing scheme in Fig. Were inspired by known methods used to make membrane electrode assemblies for low temperature fuel cells., Both the AEI and CEI are linear polymers and are soluble in a variety of aprotic solvents including NMP, N,N-dimethylformamide, N,N-dimethylacetamide, and dimethylsulfoxide. Residual solvent present in the ionomer binders after the initial evaporation step makes them thermally processable for adhering the ionomer to the resin particles.
However, the ionomer materials are not water soluble, which is an important requirement for use in RW-EDI. Other ionomer material chemistries, such as sodium sulfonate polystyrene and poly(vinyl benzyl pyridinium chloride- random-vinyl benzyl-4-fluorophenyethylamine), were assessed for fabricating ionomer binder RWs, but the mechanical quality of the RWs was poor upon removal from the mold, or the IEC of the ionomer was too high resulting in the RW falling apart in water (see Supplementary Fig. To make mechanically robust ionomer binder RWs, low IEC values of the poly(arylene ether) AEI and CEI (.
Figure and Supplementary Fig. Demonstrate that the ionic conductivity for each ionomer binder RW was higher across all salt concentrations when compared to the PE binder RW. Notably, the ionomer binder RWs composed of mixed resin with CEI and AEI binders showed the highest ionic conductivities across the NaCl concentrations. It is important to note that the ionic conductivity values of the NaCl solutions are also provided in Fig.
The ionomer binder RW demonstrated that it can augment the spacer channel’s ionic conductivity up to 8 g L −1 NaCl solutions, while the PE binder RW only improves the ionic conductivity of NaCl solutions up to 3.5 g L −1. In other words, at 4 g L −1 NaCl solution concentration or greater in the spacer channel, the PE binder RW can no longer boost the ionic conductivity.
These results emphasize the ionomer binder RWs’ versatility because they can supplement the ionic conductivity in RW-EDI’s diluate or concentrate compartments when the solution concentration is high as 8 g L −1 NaCl.Figure replots the ionic conductivity data normalized by the IEC of the RW on the basis of RW weight (meq g −1). Supplementary Fig. Reports the ionic conductivity data normalized by the IEC of the wafer on the basis of RW volume (meq mL −1). Table reports the RWs’ IEC values per mass and per volume on a dry basis. These values account for fixed charge carrier contributions from both the binder (if applicable) and the ion-exchange resin particles.
The normalized conductivity to IEC shown in Fig. And Supplementary Fig. Yielded similar trends to those shown in Fig. Indicating that the ionomer binder RWs’ ionic conductivities were higher than the benchmark PE binder RW. Notably, a four-fold increase in normalized ionic conductivity was observed in the dilute salt concentration regime of. The presence of ionic groups in the binder provides more fixed charge carriers to supplement the ionic conductivity of the RW. The Nernst-Planck relationship indicates that ionic conductivity in electrolytes is a linear function of the fixed concentration of charge carriers.
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Based on the theoretical relationship, it is plausible that the improvement in ionic conductivity might be solely attributed to the addition of fixed charge groups in the ionomer binder. However, the newly formulated RWs require less binder than the benchmark RW with PE binder, and normalizing the ionic conductivity of each RW to the RW’s IEC shows the concentration of fixed charge carriers alone cannot account for the increased ionic conductivity of the ionomer-based RWs. To better understand the ionic conductivity performance differences of the ionomer binder RWs versus PE binder RWs, electron microscopy was leveraged to inspect the RWs’ porous structure and binder distribution.Figure gives cross-sectional (left) and surface (right) SEM images of PE binder RW (benchmark) and ionomer binder RWs. The resin beads observed in each micrograph vary from 300 to 500 μm in size. Figure corresponds to the PE binder RW, and the images show PE enveloping the surface of the ion-exchange resin particles with a relatively thick layer of PE and poor ion-exchange resin particle to ion-exchange resin particle contact. The large surface coverage with a thick PE binder hinders liquid solution contact with the ion-exchange resins, resulting in less ion-exchange and fewer pathways for ion transport from particle to particle. Figure show distinctly different distributions of binder and particle confinement within the ionomer binder RWs when compared to the PE binder RW.
From these images, the ionomer binder in each RW sample is thinner and more evenly distributed to provide better adhesion between the ion-exchange resin particles. Furthermore, the ionomer binder seems to cover particles’ surfaces less when compared to the PE binder RW. The ionomer binder RW structures also feature notably large, porous gaps that facilitate bulk liquid flow. This is important because the ionomer binder and exposed resin particles are capable of ion-exchange with the liquid solution.
In addition to Table providing the IEC values of the RWs, the Table also gives the different RWs’ porosity values (i.e., free-liquid void space divided by wafer volume, Eq. Two of the ionomer binder RWs, the mixed resin with CEI binder and CER with AEI binder, provided comparable porosity values to the benchmark PE binder RW (e.g., 23.8% and 24.3% versus 26.5%). The RWs consisting of mixed resin with AEI binder and the AER with CEI binder yielded lower porosity values—18.6% and 13.0%, respectively. It is important to mention that RW-EDI demonstrations were carried out with RWs composed of AER with CEI binder and mixed resin with CEI binder (these results are presented in the next section).
The RW with AER and CEI binder had the smallest porosity value but still operated effectively in a RW-EDI bench-scale unit and with better performance than the benchmark PE bind.
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